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Tissue engineering is a promising field that aims to create artificial tissues and organs for patients who suffer from organ failure or damage. One of the main challenges in this field is to design and fabricate suitable scaffolds that can support the growth and function of the desired tissue. Scaffolds are three-dimensional structures that mimic the natural extracellular matrix (ECM) of the tissue, providing physical, chemical, and biological cues for cell attachment, proliferation, differentiation, and organization [138]. Since different tissues have different characteristics and requirements, scaffolds need to be customized according to the specific application. For example, scaffolds for bone tissue engineering need to have high mechanical strength and stiffness, while scaffolds for nerve tissue engineering need to have high electrical conductivity and guidance cues [139]. Therefore, various polymers, which are synthetic or natural materials that can be shaped into different forms, have been used to create scaffolds with different properties and architectures. Some of the common fabrication techniques for polymer scaffolds include electrospinning, freeze-drying, solvent casting, phase separation, gas foaming, and 3D printing [140]. These techniques can manipulate the polymer solution or melt into different shapes and sizes, such as meshes, fibers, sponges and foams, microspheres, and complex 3D structures. The choice of the fabrication technique depends on several factors, such as the type and solubility of the polymer, the desired porosity and surface area of the scaffold, the required mechanical and biological properties of the scaffold, and the compatibility with cells and biomolecules. Table 1 summarizes some of the methods used for scaffold structure development.
One of the most widely used fabrication techniques for polymer scaffolds is electrospinning, which involves applying a high voltage to a polymer solution or melt that is extruded through a needle. The electric field stretches the polymer jet into thin fibers that are collected on a grounded collector. Electrospinning can produce nanofibrous scaffolds that have high surface area, porosity, and similarity to the natural ECM. Electrospun scaffolds have been used for various tissue engineering applications, such as skin, blood vessels, nerves, and bone [141]. However, electrospinning also has some limitations, such as difficulty in controlling the fiber alignment and diameter, low mechanical strength and stability, and poor cell infiltration and distribution [142]. Therefore, various modifications and enhancements have been made to improve the performance and functionality of electrospun scaffolds, such as blending different polymers, incorporating nanoparticles or biomolecules, and combining with other fabrication techniques [143].
Another popular fabrication technique for polymer scaffolds is 3D printing, which is a layer-by-layer additive manufacturing process that can create complex and customized 3D structures from digital models. 3D printing can use various types of polymers, such as thermoplastics, hydrogels, and biodegradable polymers, to create scaffolds with precise control over the shape, size, porosity, and architecture. 3D printed scaffolds can also incorporate multiple materials and functional components, such as cells, growth factors, drugs, and sensors, to enhance the biological performance and functionality of the scaffolds [144]. 3D printing has been used for various tissue engineering applications, such as cartilage, bone, liver, kidney, and heart [145]. However, 3D printing also has some challenges, such as low printing speed and resolution, high cost and complexity of equipment and materials, and potential toxicity and degradation of the printed materials [146]. Therefore, further research and development are needed to optimize the 3D printing parameters and materials for tissue engineering applications. 061ffe29dd